Definition and Examples of Conjunctive Adverbs

In English grammar, a conjunctive adverb is an adverb  or adverbial phrase that indicates a relation in meaning between two sequential  independent clauses  (or main clauses). It is also called a conjunct, a transitional conjunction, or a cohesive conjunction. A conjunctive adverb is commonly placed at the beginning of the main clause (where its usually followed by a comma); accordingly, it may follow a semicolon, but only when both clauses (the one before and the one after the conjunctive adverb) are independent and can stand alone. A conjunctive adverb  may appear, on the other hand, almost anywhere in the clause. When used as an interrupting word or phrase, the conjunctive adverb is usually set off by commas on either side. If you are uncertain whether a connecting word is a  conjunctive adverb, test by moving the connecting word to another place in the clause, author  Stephen Reid writes in  The Prentice Hall Guide for College Writers, Conjunctive adverbs can be moved;  subordinating conjunctions  (such as  if  and  because) and  coordinating conjunctions  (but, or, yet, for, and, nor, so) cannot. Contrast With Regular  Adverbs Unlike a conventional adverb, which typically affects the meaning of only a single word or phrase, the meaning of a conjunctive adverb affects the entire clause of which it is a part.   For example, a conventional adverb modifies a verb or adjective, such as in The child just couldnt bear to walk slowly, where  slowly gives more information about the verb  walk. Or, in The Halloween costume looked absolutely ridiculous, the adverb absolutely emphasizes the adjective ridiculous. In contrast, a conjunctive adverb pertains to the entire sentence and connects two parts. Or, if it starts a sentence, it can serve as a transition from one statement to another, as in when you want to make a point of contrasting two things in consecutive sentences: The Halloween costume looked absolutely ridiculous. However, Sam thought it provided the perfect effect. In another distinction between the two types of adverbs, as shown in the list below, a conjunctive adverb may also consist of more than one word, such as in the meantime or at last. Common Conjunctive Adverbs in English Here is a list of examples of conjunctive adverbs. Please note that some words in this list can be other word forms as well; usage will determine which it is.   For example, if a sentence reads, She really should act accordingly, that is a regular adverbial usage. A conjunctive adverbial usage of the word could be something like, The law changed in the state to allow liquor sales on Sundays; accordingly, retailers had to decide if they would be open that day or remain closed by choice. accordingly afterward again also anyhow anyway as a result at last at the same time before besides certainly consequently conversely earlier eventually finally for example for instance further furthermore granted hence however in addition in any case incidentally in conclusion indeed in fact in short in spite of instead in the meantime later lately likewise meanwhile moreover namely nevertheless next nonetheless now on the contrary on the other hand otherwise perhaps rather similarly so still subsequently that is then thereafter, therefore thus undoubtedly Source Reid, Stephen.  The Prentice Hall Guide for College Writers. 6th ed, Prentice-Hall, 2003.

The Rise And Fall Of Prohibition - 1188 Words

What is the purpose of government? The U.S. government has grown to provide much more than was originally included in the constitution. Some may argue that large government is helpful, because a large government provides services for its citizens through many different programs. While this may be, some of these programs have only created bigger problems. Prohibition is a great illustration of this, while the consumption of alcohol was lowered as a result, there was a large increase in crime. In the book The Rise and Fall of Prohibition, results from a study were published, showing that after prohibition, crime in major US cities had risen by 24%, with drug addiction going up a staggering 44.6% (Hanson, 1923). While the intent of these programs is positive, in most cases it’s one step forward and two steps backwards. In The Federalist Papers No. 2, John Jay stated, â€Å"Nothing is more certain than the indispensable necessity of government;† (Jay, 1787). While governme nt is necessary, limits must be put in place to ensure that a government doesn’t grow too large, to the point where it grows out of control. Large governments are inefficient, limit freedoms for individuals, and oppose the idea of free enterprise. The current US government, for example, has grown much too large, there’s a government agency or department for just about everything you can imagine. This affects everyone from CEOs to average joes, from air travel to national security, the government is overly involvedShow MoreRelatedOkrent’s Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition Essay1462 Words   |  6 Pagessought banning â€Å"the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors† within the United States and its US territories. Many Americans relate this era with speakeasy, public law breaking, and a public disregard for the establishment of prohibition. The 18th Amendment was the first constitutional amendment that sought to limit the rights of citizens and their rights to drink. This would become an attempt that many would soon come to realize as one of the greatest failures in law enforcementRead MoreThe Rise and Fall of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920 Essay1558 Words   |  7 PagesThe Rise and Fall of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s The second Ku Klux Klan lasted between 1915 to 1944 but predominantly rose and fell during the 1920s. The Ku Klux Klan was a white supremacist group with millions of members who brutally tortured and killed anyone who was not a white American. The Ku Klux Klan were known for their white robes, cone hats, and covered faces that disguised their identities. The second Ku Klux Klan’s most important part of it’s history was it’s dramatic rise and fallRead MoreProhibition in Canada Essay628 Words   |  3 PagesProhibition in Canada Prohibition was a very interesting time in the history of Canada it was a very good time period for the country and also a bad time for the country. Prohibition all began to rise around the 1840s and the 1850s by temperance groups in Canada, this set the bases for prohibition because some people were starting to see the affect that alcohol had on a society. Prohibition actually only lasted for two years ( 1917 to 1920 ) through out the entire country, except Quebec theyRead MoreProhibition : Installment And Effects1255 Words   |  6 PagesDylan Cox Coach Kaye AP Psychology 12 March 2016 Prohibition: Installment and Effects â€Å"The ratification of the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution–which banned the manufacture, transportation and sale of intoxicating liquors–ushered in a period in American history known as Prohibition† (History.com Staff). Overnight, alcohol went from a common drink of choice to an illegal asset that became the heartbeat of bootlegging organizations and organized crime. The otherwise â€Å"Roaring 20s† was marredRead MoreA comparison between the 1920s and the 1980s.1408 Words   |  6 Pagesmany ways. Their similarities are social, economical, and political. Some of the similarities between the decades are Prohibition and the War on Drugs, the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and 1987, and the influence of music on society. Prohibition was passed as the 18th amendment, that importing, exporting, transporting, and manufacturing of alcohol was to be put to an end. Prohibition did not achieve its goals. Instead, it added to the problems that it intended to solve. It was expected that the decreaseRead MoreIdentification And Evaluation Of Sources1315 Words   |  6 Pageswill explore the question: What were the causes that lead to Prohibition s failure in the United States? This investigation will follow the years 1893 through 1933 to analyze the reasons for Prohibition s failure as well as a shift away from Prohibition. The Prohibition era in the United States is most notably remembered for its inability to sober up the nation. According to Mark Thornton, a historian from Cato Institute, prohibition had some initial success but ultimately led to an increaseRead MoreProhibition : America s Unhappy Hour Essay1726 Words   |  7 PagesSpencer Andersen Mr. Jonathan Walker HIS 132-100 8 November 2015 Prohibition: America’s Unhappy Hour In the United States, the consumption of alcohol is more or less ingrained in American culture. Whether beer at the baseball game, wine from Napa Valley, or bourbon from Kentucky, alcohol has shaped American culture. The rise in immigration during the late 1800s and early 1900s led to towns establishing saloons in order to lure in potential customers and boost the local economy. By 1900, there wereRead MoreWhy was Prohibition such a controversial issue during the 1920’s1369 Words   |  6 Pages Why was Prohibition such a controversial issue during the 1920’s? Prohibition was the banning of the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. The power to ban the production, export, import, transportation or sale of alcoholic beverages was given by the 18th Amendment, 1917. This was gradually adopted by state governments across America and was followed up in 1919 by the Volstead Act that defined intoxicating liquor as a drink containing 0.5% of alcohol and prescribedRead MoreWhy Did Prohibition Last so Long Essay1595 Words   |  7 PagesWhy Did Prohibition Last So Long? Prohibition of Alcohol in America was introduced in 1920 with the 18th amendment of the constitution and was finally revoked in 1933. Prohibition was always considered a failure, due to the way it was policed, the fact the American people at the time liked to drink and the fact that alcohol was very easily accessible. Therefore the fact it lasted thirteen years, despite it being obvious within the first five that things were not working, seems incomprehensibleRead MoreProhibition and the War on Drugs904 Words   |  4 Pagesconsumption of illicit and harmful substances, even shown in modern domestic policies. Yet with much effort, positive results was not usually yielded. Apart from the outcomes, prohibition has made a large impact on daily life. In the United States, prohibition of alcohol and opium was a visible and controversial debate. The prohibition of alcohol and criminalization of opium were very different but still had some similarities such as the events that happened, its immediate reaction, and the lasting significance

Research Reflection in Learning Experience †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Research Reflection in Learning Experience. Answer: Introduction: Learning experience is defined as any form of experience a student gains, by interaction through any specific academic course or professional training program or activity, in a formal academic set-up, or outside the campus, that actively contributes to the enhancement of his knowledge and expertise. I would not hesitate to state that one of the most profound learning experiences I had ever, was through the completion of the present research project. I would definitely admit that I did encounter huge academic pressure while choosing the research topic, and I was considerably stressed out, by the very thought of executing the research project. However, as I proceeded with the project, the continual support and assistance provided by my supervisor and peers, definitely helped me derive enormous knowledge about the research process. I not only learnt about the process of conducting secondary research of the topic, but also mastered the art of undertaking survey, to verify my findings of the academic review. The research experience is invaluable for me, and it is difficult to describe its worth in simple words. However, it is worth mentioning here that this experience is the first stepping stone to a more fulfilling academic career that is waiting for me to be explored. I gained the necessary knowledge about research methods and data analysis process, that will help me become a professional research in the coming days. Besides, this experience has provided me with the basic research skills, business theory knowledge, social skills and confidence which are likely to enhance my employability skills in the long run. I believe that there are innumerable benefits which I am able to derive through this research process learning experience. First of all, the completion of a research project on my own and the conclusion and new findings contributed by the research will add much value to my Curriculum Vitae and will make a more suitable applicant if I ever wish to work in the field of research. It is important to mention here that in the process of completing this research project, I have discovered my passion to work in the field of academic research, and hence this experience will be very useful. Secondly, by undertaking the research, I have been able to develop my knowledge in the field of business outsourcing, and how the same helps an organization lower its operational cost, while enhancing its revenue. The extensive research process and the thorough investigation of the research issue, has remarkably enhanced my knowledge about the benefits as well as the potential drawbacks of outsourcing. Cons equently, later in the long run, if I ever engage in an business activity management, I can use my knowledge and utilize my research findings to harness the value of outsourcing-led innovative business practices. The opportunity of scholarly publication will also add to my CV that will increase my future professional prospects. However, while enumerating the benefits of my research experience, I would not confine my discussion to my professional development, and would rather like to include how the research has contributed to m personal development as well. By undertaking and completing the research experience independently, I have become more confident and self-reliant. Besides, I used to be a very shy and withdrawn person, and yet while undertaking the research survey I had to interact with many respondents, that helped in improving my communication skills and other social skills. My basic intellectual skills such as insight and inquisitiveness also got improved that is sure to he lp me attain professional success if I ever wish to work as an academic researcher. While narrating what exactly happened during the learning process, I would first of all like to mention that this research project was my first research project, and hence I failed on many occasions before learning new things. First of all, I had great difficulty in choosing the research topic, as I had so many ideas that I got overwhelmed and stressed. However, my lecturer as well as my friends explained to me that I had to select a research topic, that would be the most suitable one, given the present scenario, and it should one, where there had been so far little research in the past. Thus, I first understood that given the globalization of the world, I could conduct research on outsourcing business activities that would be most relevant in the present business scenario. The next thing that I learnt in the process, is collect necessary data required for conducting the research. First of all, in order to develop the conceptual framework of my research, I required collecting fundame ntal secondary data already available. However, while collecting data, I realized that although adequate information were available on the free sites of the internet, the use of peer-reviewed journals and offline journals available in the libraries is irreplaceable. Initially, I found that there is plenty of information that could be used in the research paper that made my content irrelevant to an extent. At this point, my supervisor assisted me and I learnt the importance of writing an outline of the literature review section, so that I can narrow down the specific fields of research I wish to investigate. Since I was not comfortable with the statistical analysis of data, I wished to stick to the qualitative data collection method only. However, I learnt from my lecturer that in order to check the authenticity of the qualitative data, and to make the conclusion highly case-specific and relevant, I must undertake survey on the employees of the organizations that practice outsourcing activities. Hence, in order to develop my professional skills, I got myself enrolled in a Survey and Estimation Learning Course for two weeks, that improved my survey conduction and data analyses skills. This training course also helped me get comfortable with basic statistical methods of data analysis such as Statistical Package for the Social Sciences(SPSS). While explaining the importance of this business research project, I wish to explain both how it helped me develop knowledge about the basic research skills as well as how it added to enhance my knowledge about business. First of all, I would like to mention that no research project is meaningful without the researcher reflecting on his existent knowledge and critically analysing the same, to derive new findings. Earlier, I tended to study and learn only what was served to me in class, in the form of lecture notes. For the first time, I was being able to develop knowledge, by pondering and reflecting over issues that do not form an integral part of my academic curriculum. The out-of-the-classroom learning experience, helped me learn more independently, critically evaluate each piece of knowledge, and reflect on to derive a new conclusion, that can add value to the existent database. Prior to undertaking the research project, I always thought that research is about establishing ones o wn viewpoints and yet I always dismissed the importance of investigation if secondary resources. I had no interest in reading, learning and inquiring into new things. However, this business research project developed my reading interest, encouraging me to inquire into new issues as well. It is this research project that helped to develop sufficient knowledge about the benefits and potential drawbacks of outsourcing business activities, and helped me understand the factors that need serious consideration during the implementation of outsourcing business activities. First of all, under the supervision of my lecturer, I chose to select a research topic related to business outsourcing, as it appeared to me the most relevant research topic in the present globalized market. Although I decided to research the advantages and disadvantages of business outsourcing, and plenty of information was available on the internet sites, I decided to opt for peer-reviewed articles and academic journals found offline as well as online, in order to ensure the authenticity of the data used in the research. Next, I was a bit sceptical regarding my ability to accomplish the survey process in an effective way, and yet I successfully did the same, as numerical data was important to ensure that the research findings are completely reliable and valid. Although I was a little tensed while analysing the findings through SPSS system, with the help of my teacher I overcame my fear and lack of confidence. Most importantly, the research has helped in developing my knowledge, as prior to the conduction of the research, I believed that an organization is able to earn profit only by outsourcing its business activities. However, after the completion of the research, I realized that outsourcing could bring risk to the client organization as well. Conclusion: Last but not the least, I would like to state that this research project will be largely beneficial in future. First of all, it helped me gain insight into basic management concepts such as nature and cost advantages of the outsourcing activities, as well as the strategies to combat the risks associated with the same. As a Business Manager or an entrepreneur in future, I will be able to utilize and apply these knowledge in a real business scenario, that will help in improving the productivity and revenue earning capacity of the organization. I have also learnt the importance of reflecting and analyzing existent knowledge to draw my own conclusion, and such depth of knowledge will help me adopt and implement innovative business strategies in my organization in future. Again, if I wish to pursue my career in the field of academic research, the experience and skills attained by me in this research will help me.

Ozone Depletion Is An Environmental Problem That Many People Do Not Ta

Ozone depletion is an environmental problem that many people do not take as seriously as they should. The ozone layer protects animal and plant life from the suns harmful radiation. The depletion of the ozone layer will allow ultraviolet rays to, over time, lead to higher skin cancer rates, eye cataracts, and crop damage. At ground level, ozone, a form of oxygen, is poisonous to humans and other organisms. It causes respiratory problems and damages plants. The greatest concentration of ozone is located in a layer of air called the stratosphere, some 10 to 30 miles above the Earths surface. About 90% of the Earths protective ozone layer resides in this level. The molecule, ozone, is produced in this layer by solar radiation. Before man was destroying the ozone layer, it went through a natural cycle in which ozone was both produced and destroyed in the stratosphere?. The total amount of ozone remained relatively stable. Each natural reduction in ozone levels was followed by recovery. In the past 25 years, however, scientists have discovered that the ozone shield is being depleted by means other than the natural cycle. The problem was first noticed in 1976. Scientists in Antarctica noticed a ten percent drop in ozone levels during the Antarctic spring (September through November). Each year another drop in the ozone level was recorded. The scientists published their data in 1985, reporting that since the 1960s a forty percent loss in ozone had occurred over Antarctica during the spring months. In 1988 it was reported that ozone levels had declined over most other parts of the world, though not as severely as over Antarctica?. There are many causes that contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer. One major one is the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This chemical is found in many household products all over the world. CFCs are nontoxic, noncorrosive, nonflammable, and unreactive to most substances. Because of this, they were considered safe and widely used in refrigeration, as cleaning solvents in the manufacture of electronic circuits, as foaming agents in the manufacture of Styrofoam and other plastics, and as propellants of aerosol cans. Aerosol hairspray, any foam products, foam cups, any CFC containing chemical, and home insulation are all harmful products to the ozone layer. Once these compounds are released they float into the atmosphere where they are broken down by sunlight. This causes the CFCs to break down into chlorine monoxide. One molecule of chlorine monoxide can destroy over five hundred thousand molecules of ozone?. Approximately two billion pounds of CFCs are manufactured each year , with the United States producing one-third?. If ozone conditions stay the same for the next 50 years or so, the ozone layer will continue to deteriorate; causing less oxygen, hotter temperatures, and an increase in skin cancer?. As a result to decreasing oxygen, humans will have more difficult time breathing, and there will be a major loss in plant life. Some species that use a lot of oxygen to survive will die out causing problems in the food chain. Skin cancer will increase drastically. The ozone layer protects the Earth against dangerous ultra violet rays that cause skin cancer. If the hole in the ozone layer continues to grow, more UV rays will get to the Earth and cause more cancer. According to EPA estimates, if ozone destruction continues at its present rate, there will be an additional 155 million cases of skin cancer and an additional 3.2 million cancer deaths in the United States during the next 100 years?. Prevention for the ozone layer is up to humans. Ozone depletion chemicals should be no longer produced. In 1987, the government responded to this problem by signing an agreement to limit the production of CFCs and other ozone destroying chemicals. However, this particular agreement has phased out over time and is no longer strongly enforced?. If industries would cease production of any ozone depleting chemicals, this would help tremendously. We can individually help this problem in many ways. Repair all leaks in the air conditioner system in your car and home, purchase non-aerosol items, avoid the use of Styrofoam products, choose non-CFC insulation for homes and businesses, carpool with friends to school to help prevent air

Fredrick The Great Essays - House Of Hohenzollern,

Fredrick The Great Why did Prussia need Frederick the great? Before Frederick took charge Prussia was not a country. It was broken into separate territories. France and England had become very powerful in the 1600s and Prussia felt endangered. Fredericks father Frederick the I was the elector of Prussia. When Frederick came to power his goal was to make Prussia a country. He believed that good government was rational but also authoritarian. Frederick was the first modern organizer. He put most of the countrys wealth intro the military. He believed that the key to a countrys wealth was through its military. 80% of Prussias income went to the military. Prussia selected people for the military through the draft. Eventually Frederick died and left the kingdom to his son. Frederick the great was left with a 72,000 person military. This was a great deal of people for such a little country. Prussia only had 2,000,000 people. Frederick the great believed that the idea of Prussian buacracy was that if you pay people well you would get loyalty. Frederick saw government as a contract with his people. Frederick was a very enlightened ruler. He believed that God had not chosen him to be Prussias ruler. This was shocking because in Fredericks time kings were thought to be chosen from God. Frederick was enlightened in three ways. He didnt allow government officials to take money. He didnt allow his subjects to be tortured. Finally, he had religious toleration. Frederick found that it was time to expand Prussia into a great nation so he conducted a series of wars. These wars were called the Silesian Wars. Frederick started these wars for three reasons. The first reason was to show the rest of Europe how powerful Prussia was. The second reason was Frederick had an ambition to expand Prussia. The final reason was that silesia had over 1,000,000 people. This was half the size of his nation. More people meant more mo ney for his army. Why did Prussia need Frederick the Great? Prussia needed someone that fights for the people. Prussia needed someone who cared about his subjects. Prussia all a long, had the talent to become a great nation. It just needed someone to give them a kick-start. Frederick was this person. Frederick put himself on his subjects level. This was revolutionary idea. I leave you with a quote from Frederick to sum everything up. Frederick said, I am the first servant of the state. History Essays

Profession of Arms Essay Example

Profession of Arms Essay Example Profession of Arms Essay Profession of Arms Essay a medical doctor doing surgery, a lawyer arguing a brief before the bar, or an Army commander synchronizing the various elements of combat power in a modern COIN environment. Since the members of the society served are utterly dependent on these professionals for their health, justice, and security, a deep moral obligation rests on the profession, and its professionals, to use their unique capabilities only in the best interests of that society, and not in their own interests. All professionals inherently are servants, morally bound to an ethic of non-exploitation via their expertise. Thus military professions are generally considered â€Å"social trustee† professions in that their life blood is the trust in which the society holds them to acquire the knowledge and expertise to do something that the society cannot do for itself, but yet without which the society cannot survive; and to use that expertise according to the values held by the client. The fields of medicine, theology, law, and more recently the military have traditionally been organized in western societies as a social trustee form of profession. Effectiveness, not efficiency, is the key to the work of professionals- the sick want a cure, the sinner wants absolution, the accused want exoneration, and the defenseless seek security. To be sure, all clients in any professional field want efficient service, but effectiveness- truly efficacious results from the profession’s expert practice- is their overriding goal. Thus, professions are self-forming, self-regulating, and self-initiating organizations for the provision of expert services to a client which the profession is ethically constrained not to exploit in its own self-interest. The servant ethic of professions is therefore characterized as cedat emptor, â€Å"let the taker believe in us. † The Army’s professional ethic is built on trust with the American people, as well as with civilian leaders and junior professionals within the ranks. In contrast, other government occupations generally do not work with expert knowledge; they are designed to do socially necessary, repetitive tasks with efficiency (e. g. , a state Department of Motor Vehicles). Such bureaucracies ely on structure and process, formalization and differentiation of roles and tasks, centralized management, and standard operating procedures. Being efficient producers of non-expert work, they survive over the long term by competing successfully among other bureaucracies for necessary resources. They focus little on developing their personnel, as most can be easily replaced by acquiring and training new personnel. It follows from these descriptions that the means of motivation and so cial control within a profession- its Ethic- is also quite distinct from those of a business or a government occupation. The client (i. e. , the American people in the case of the Army) trusts the profession to produce the expert work when and where needed. And because of the client’s trust in the profession’s expert knowledge and practice, the American people are willing to grant significant autonomy to professions to create their own expert knowledge and to police the application of that knowledge by individual professionals. An exemplary Ethic is thus a necessity for the Profession of Arms to retain such trust from the American people. Further, the profession must actively self-police the use of its Ethic, precluding to the extent possible any incidents that serve to undermine America’s trust in the effectiveness of their Army or its Ethic, e. g. , the strategic failure at Abu Ghraib, the failures at Walter Reed Medical Center, the terrorist massacre at Ft. Hood, and the more recent failures at Arlington Cemetery). Further, while businesses and government occupations traditionally motivate their workers by reliance on extrinsic factors such as salary, benefits, promotions, etc. professions in contrast use means of social control that are more inspirational, largely intrinsic factors such as the life-long pursuit of truly expert knowledge, the privilege and honor of service, the satisfaction of nurturing and protecting life and enabling society to flourish, and the social status of membership in an ancient, honorable, and revered occupational group that self-polices it membership. Thus true Army professionals are always more personally motivated by the intrinsic aspects of their service, rather than by its extrinsic factors. We can fairly summarize this discussion by noting that an organizational ontinuum exists along which every Army command and unit finds itself every day. While this will be explained in more detail in a subsequent discussion on culture, here we simply restate the facts: the Army has a dual character, it is both a military profession and a governmental occupation and these two types of organizations have different cultures and behaviors, following different ethics. The end points of this continuum of organizational culture are described in the chart below; and it clearly is a continuum, with every Army organization reflecting some aspects of each. Based on their assigned mission, there may be an optimum balance between professional and occupational behavior that differs across Army organization types. A supply depot, for example, and a brigade combat team may rightly differ in character based on their profession/occupation mix. COMPARISONPROFESSIONGOVERNMENT OCCUPATION KnowledgeExpert, abstract and practical; requires life-long learning and certificationNon-expert; quickly learned on the job largely through training vs. ducation/development PracticeKnowledge applied with discretion to new situations by individual professionalsRepetitive situations, work done by following SOPs, administrative rules, and procedures Key to SuccessFocus on effectiveness of applied practicesFocus on efficiency of resources used Culture/EthicGranted autonomy to practice within a self-policing ethicClosely supervised; imposed governmental ethic InvestmentsPriority investment in developing individual professionalsPriority investment in hardware/softwa re, routines, and systems GrowthIndividuals develop coherent rofessional worldviewA worldview is unnecessary to the work MotivationIntrinsic, altruistic toward client; work is a callingExtrinsic: work is a job for personal gain LeadershipDevelops leaders who inspire and transform effective professionals Trains managers who focus on efficient processes and systems Table 1-1. A Continuum: Profession to Government Occupation. The goal of all Army leaders, obviously, is to create everywhere within the Army the culture of a Profession of Arms while making subservient the cultural influences of necessary supporting occupational organizations. One way to understand how professions conform their supporting organizations is the concept of a â€Å"professional† bureaucracy as opposed to a â€Å"machine† bureaucracy, which we will introduce and explain in Section 3. 3. In concluding this section, we must always remember that the Army is not a profession just because it says it is. In fact, the Army does not get to decide if it is a profession. That prerogative belongs to our client, the American people, who will do so each day depending on how our Army performs and how trustworthy they perceive it to be. In other words, status as a profession must be earned every day in the trust relationship the Army maintains with the society it serves and defends. Section 2. 3 The Army’s Expertise and Jurisdictions At a more detailed level of analysis, all modern professions display at least three common traits: they create and maintain their own expert knowledge (expertise); they apply that expertise to a situation or arena wherein their client wants it applied (a jurisdiction); and after a period of time, depending on their effectiveness, they will have established a relationship of trust with the client (legitimacy). The Army’s premier expertise is the art and science of fulfilling its military purposes stated earlier from Title 10. They need not be restated here, other than to note the amazing breadth of expertise that is needed to be militarily effective under the new concept of Operational Adaptability across the full spectrum of operations. To create and maintain that broad expertise, the Army must continually develop its own professionals with constantly renewed expert knowledge that can be conceptually grouped into our fields: MILITARY-TECHNICAL FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE that tells the Army how to conduct offense, defense, and stability or civil support operations on land at each of strategic, operational, and tactical levels; MORAL-ETHICAL FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE that tells the Army how to fight those wars morally, as the American people expect and as domestic and international laws require; POLITICAL-CULTURAL FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE that tells the Army how to operate effectively in our own and othe r cultures across organizational and national boundaries, including the vital fields of civil-military relations and media-military relations; and, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT FIELD OF KNOWLEDGE that tells the Army how to socialize, train, educate and develop civilians to become Soldiers and then to develop those Soldiers to be leaders within and future stewards of the profession. Clearly it is not the case that every Army Professional is to be equally expert in all fields of knowledge. Rather, the development of individual professionals is a process of life-long learning which combines training, education, and operational experience with emphasis among the fields of expert knowledge, shifting as one progresses through a career or, for some, progresses from generalist to specialist. But, as we will see later, the changing way in which the Army now pursues irregular warfare has significantly changed the relative importance of the fields of knowledge, shifting for example the need for expertise in political and cultural knowledge to much earlier in the career of combat arms leaders. The external jurisdictions within which the Army operates, most recently renegotiated within the Joint arena in 2006 with civilian leaders and the other services, are currently four. The Army is to be prepared to apply its expertise to: major combat operations, strategic deterrence, stability operations, and homeland security. More important to the dialogue advanced by this White Paper, however, are the two internal jurisdictions that exist within all professions. They are: 1) the development and maintenance of their expert knowledge; and 2) the development of human practitioners to apply that knowledge with expertise and character gained from years of study and practice. In more clear Army language these two internal jurisdictions are known as military doctrine and leader (and Soldier) development. It hould be clear from just these few insights into the nature of professions that the most critical field of knowledge for the Army is the last, developing Soldiers and leaders who can p ractice expertly and morally the military knowledge that the Army creates. Ultimately, the Army can have the most advanced technology possible, but without capable and adaptive Soldiers to use it, all is in vain. So, the two points to be made here are: every professional Soldier has to have a modicum level of expert knowledge in all four fields to be effective; and, a robust leader development system is simply the sine qua non for a professional Army. Establishing priorities for adequate investments in Soldier and leader development remains, however, one of the most vexing challenges facing the Army as a Profession of Arms and its strategic leaders. Section 2. 4 The Practice of the Army Professional The specific practice of the Army professional, irrespective of rank or position, is the â€Å"repetitive exercise of discretionary judgment† to bring about effective results to the situation under his or her purview, and done in ways consistent with the professional ethic–whether a combat patrol or a major budget decision. The essence of this definition is that true professionals control their own work, most often no one tells the professional what to do or how to do it; their actions are discretionary. Think of a leader on patrol in Iraq or Afghanistan, or a senior leader in the Pentagon. How many times in the course of a day will they make a highly discretionary judgment, one not announced by a formula or computer, rather drawn primarily from their years of accumulated knowledge and experience? That is the practice of the military professional’s art, many times a day, followed up by actions to implement their decisions. Second, most all of these repetitive discretionary judgments have a high degree of moral content, where decisions will directly and rather immediately impact on the life of another human being, whether subordinate Soldier and family, the enemy, or an innocent on the battlefield. Such judgments must therefore be rendered by Army professionals of well developed moral character and with the ability to reason in moral frameworks. Such was the case in the battle of Wanat, July 2008 in Afghanistan, where leaders at multiple levels of command from infantry company upward each made discretionary judgments as to how best to use available resources to establish a new combat outpost in the Korengal Valley. Ultimately the final review of this battle established that these leaders, despite the loss of seven Army Soldiers KIA and twenty-seven WIA while successfully repelling an enemy attempt to overrun the outpost, each had made judgments that were reasonable and prudent based on what they knew at the time. While the loss of Army Soldiers forever remains a tragedy, the senior reviewer’s conclusion as to what caused them is instructive for our understanding of the Profession of Arms and the moral discretion that Army leaders must exercise: It is critical that we not mechanically equate U. S. casualties with professional error or misconduct. In war battle is the mechanism by which we defeat the enemy. In battle, casualties are inevitable. Regrettably they are often the price of victory. Thus in a stark and poignant example we see that one critical aspect of professions is the significant autonomy that they are granted to do their work. Unlike many businesses and most government occupations, the Army as a profession is not highly regulated in its internal jurisdictions by the society it serves. No one tells the Army what to write in its doctrinal manuals (its expert knowledge), Army leaders have wide discretion in setting policies to educate and train its soldiers with that knowledge, and commanders in the field execute their operations with equally wide discretionary authority. The nature of war establishes this tenet of the Profession of Arms, and the more so now under the necessity to pursue decentralized counter-insurgency campaigns. As a result of the Army’s operational successes and transparent attempts as a profession to learn from its failures, the Army is currently highly trusted as compared to other public institutions. But there have been times in the past when the Army lost autonomy and some legitimacy with the American people when it failed to abide by and to self-police an Ethic approved by the client (e. g. , Aberdeen training scandal in the 1980s, Abu Ghraib more recently). In each case, for a time the Army became somewhat externally regulated, and lost some of the autonomy necessary to maintain its status as a profession. In summary, for professions the coin of the realm is trust, â€Å"may the client believe in us. † We will return to this critical discussion of trust in the last section of this White Paper. Section 2. 5 The Unique Role of Strategic Leaders of a Military Profession As introduced earlier, the continuous challenge for the strategic leaders of the Army, at least since the latter decades of the 19th century when the Army was professionalized, has been to keep its two internal natures of profession and government occupation organized as a hierarchical bureaucracy in proper balance, with profession predominant in all areas except those very few that are intrinsic to any large organization, such as the repetitive tasks of administration and some logistics. In today’s volunteer Army, and particularly within the commissioned and noncommissioned ranks, citizens volunteer with the intention and expectation of becoming professionals and being able to do their work in the physical environment and organizational culture of a profession–one that facilitates their individual development and then grants them significant autonomy to organize and execute their own work. The leadership challenge lies in the fact that Army leaders below the ranks of sergeant major, colonel, and general officer have insufficient authority and responsibility to deflect the institution away from any bureaucratic tendencies and to focus keenly on authentic professional practice. One prime example is the control such uniformed strategic leaders have over the personnel development, evaluation and certification, and assignment and utilization processes that will either motivate or de-motivate aspiring professionals and leaders as they progress through a career of service. Many of these systems may now be out of balance after nine years of continuous war, making the current challenge for Army strategic leaders palpable. At times it has been difficult for the Army’s strategic leaders to ensure that the profession had a correct balance between its internal developmental jurisdictions and its external operating jurisdictions. In such cases it did not have the right expert knowledge embedded in its professionals to practice when and where the client deemed appropriate. For example, after the fall of Baghdad in March of 2003, it became apparent that the Army fell somewhat short in maintaining this balance, including its obligations to junior members of the profession who were asked to fight a counterinsurgency campaign without the expert knowledge and the materiel support requisite to effectively doing so. To the credit of the heroic and highly adaptive leaders within the Army, and an example of the Army’s ability to recreate its own expertise, that situation was rectified in less than three years and new doctrine and practices were developed to affect the counter-insurgency campaigns from 2006 to today. As mentioned in the foreword, however, our task now as we transition form a decade of counterinsurgency operations is to restore balance in the Army capabilities along the full spectrum of anticipated operations. As this example demonstrates, the role of strategic leaders is more than critical as the Army simply cannot be a Profession of Arms unless they lead it to be one. Captains and Majors and the non-commissioned officer corps can make their own part of the Army more professional, but they do not control the levers of the major developmental systems within the Army. Further, the American people also care about this necessary balance. They want an expert, effective Army for the security of the Nation, one in which their sons and daughters can develop and mature through their service. They want the Army to be a self-policing, professional meritocracy wherein Soldiers and leaders are advanced solely as earned by their individual merits of competence and character. This leads us into discussions of Army culture and, at its core, the Army Ethic. These topics are the focus of the next sections of this paper. Section 3: Army Culture, and Influences on the Profession This section explains the nature and importance of US Army organizational culture, in terms of its influence on professional behavior. It describes the distinctive culture of the Army and explains why it takes this form. It shows how the interaction and â€Å"creative tension† between different dimensions of culture generally leads to adaptive, reliable and resilient behavioral styles and forms of organization. The section closes with a brief discussion of contemporary tensions within the culture that demand resolution. Section 3. 1 The Concept of Organizational Culture Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning held by organizational members†. Institutions – organizations that endure – have distinct and stable cultures that shape their behavior, even though they comprise many, ever-changing individuals. An organization’s culture generally reflects what it found (and perhaps still finds) to be functional in times of strong need. Military organizations are state instruments for the exercise of legitimised violence, and Soldiers are trained in the use of arms and bear arms as part of their routine duties. Because they have this distinct purpose, military organizations tend to develop deeply-held assumptions about what is appropriate and what is not. Culture goes beyond style into the spirit and soul of the body corporate. As with personality and character, culture is usually hard to describe, especially to people whose association with the organization is superficial. And it is even harder to measure. It is, in short, the â€Å"glue† that makes the Army, and its units and commands distinctive sources of identity and experience; it is essentially â€Å"how we do things around here. † Closely associated with an organization’s culture is its climate. In contrast to culture, which is more deeply embedded, organizational climate refers to Soldiers’ feelings and attitudes as they interact within the culture. A â€Å"zero defect† culture, for example, can create a climate where Soldiers feel they are not trusted and create attitudes where transparency and open dialog are not encouraged. Climate is often driven by tangible spects of the culture that reflect the organization’s value system, such as rewards and punishments, communications flow, operations tempo, and qua lity of leadership, which determine individual and team perceptions about the quality of the organization and their role within it. It is essentially â€Å"how we feel about this organization. † Unlike the more deeply embedded culture, climate is often considered to be alterable in the near term (e. g. , replace a toxic leader). Army culture has adapted over the 235 years of its history so, while it has many features in common with other western armies, it derives from experience in and of the American way of war. The Army has developed certain patterned ways of doing things according to its distinct jurisdiction and operational environment. What worked, especially in times of crisis, has become a set of rules – or rather, two sets of rules, one explicit and conscious, and the other implicit and unconscious – that are subsequently passed to new members. There are many ways, formal and informal, of passing on these â€Å"rules† to new members. The most obv ious is training, but organizational symbols, rituals, and social modelling of others’ behavior all play a part. Even though, with time, the assumptions on which these rules were/are based tend to drop out of people’s consciousness, yet their influence continues to be felt. Most Army people don’t ask, for example, why they are required to drill on parade grounds and to salute: they just accept both activities. But both drilling and saluting drive home powerful subliminal messages (as well as having functional rationale). Similarly, while the Seven Army Values that are one expression of the Army Ethic are articulated in artifacts such as value cards and posters, the values are felt at a more visceral level. The words express what is already in peoples hearts. Because of this they have quickly become accepted and unquestioned. In the same way, the Army’s belief in the importance of marksmanship, as reflected in marksmanship badges or, in the case of infantry, in the expert infantryman badge, reinforces assumptions that essentially go unchallenged: not just because they are marked by badges, but because marksmanship and infantry expertise are patently activities which the Army has consistently found to be highly functional over time. And although distinct sub-cultures also form in a variety of groups, such as the Army’s branches, e. g. , Infantry, Engineers, Artillery Armor, etc. , as each applies its unique expertise to its tasks with all converging in the operations of the Army, these sub-cultures usually share a general set of beliefs and assumptions about how things should be done. These are often manifested in icons, heroes, stories, and rituals that promote bonding among Soldiers. Stated again, culture is the glue that gives the Army and its units and commands distinctive sources of identity and codes of behavior by being the essential description and prescription of â€Å"how we do things around here†. While we would expect the perception of â€Å"what works† to change as circumstances change, the reaction to new circumstances is not always rational. A skill such as marksmanship is one of the eternal verities in the way that the Army does things, but the same is not necessarily true of all of its key functions. For example, the basic assumptions underlying the Cold War Army through to the mid-1990s resulted in a policy of equipping and preparing only to fight the â€Å"big war† in Europe. This was based on the assumptions such as national mobilization, host nation support, engagement with other coalition forces, the centrality of the Army division, and a belief in the power of technological superiority. So strong were these assumptions that they persisted even after being challenged in almost a decade of small, irregular conflicts in Somalia, Kosovo and Haiti in the 1990s and in the early years of post-9/11 engagement in Iraq and Afghanistan, as combat operations were increasingly occurring â€Å"among the people†. If a basic assumption comes to be strongly held within an institution, members will find behavior based on any other premise difficult to contemplate, even in the face of obvious difficulties. This will be all the more likely if career advancement depends on conforming to prevailing career paradigms, and if â€Å"mavericks† who challenge such paradigms are sidelined or sanctioned. But competition between operating paradigms can also lead to constructive tensions that make the Army culture dynamic and the institution responsive. Without such competition, there would often be no progress. Moreover, we would not expect sweeping change as the result of the acceptance of the new paradigm. This is not so much because military institutions are inherently conservative, but because there are certain consistencies between different ways of war, such as the premium given to mission accomplishment, persistence in the face of adversity, caring for one’s own, etc, all of which result in a degree of continuity of practice. In cultural terms, an important overall result is a deeply embedded warrior code that demands that all those bearing arms be capable of using them responsibly. Thus, even in the face of a far-from-perfect operating paradigm, the Army will manage to perform credibly, if not always optimally. Ironically, it is its very ability to do this that can delay the crunch time of facing up to the need for cultural change. And the contemporary Army can no longer afford years of delay before it accepts operational realities that persistently challenge the prevailing paradigms. In terms of current and near-future contexts, there is a crucial need for Army leaders to lift their performance in terms of recognizing and reacting to compelling signals for cultural change and leading the reshaping of Army culture. Concern about â€Å"hybrid threats† – the diverse and dynamic combinations of regular and irregular forces, both conventional and unconventional, as well as criminal elements – dominate current thinking about future armed conflict. The proper question is not whether the Army culture (or that of the armed forces in general) will change, but rather how and how quickly Army leaders should manage such a change. In the contemporary era, understanding the way that institutional culture shapes professional behavior is an essential senior leader competence. Self-awareness at the institutional level is as important as is self-awareness at the personal level. What cannot be understood cannot be changed. Section 3. 2 – Levels of Army Culture To understand the Army’s culture also requires an understanding that there are three levels within the Army’s culture. At the surface is the level of artifacts, which includes all the tangible phenomena that one sees, hears, and feels when operating in an Army unit. Artifacts include the visible products of the group, such as the architecture of its physical environment; its language, its technology and equipment; its symbols and artistic creations; its style, as embodied in uniforms, manners of address, and emotional displays; the myths and stories told about the organization; its published list of values; its observable rituals and ceremonies; and so on. Chain of command pictures in a unit’s ready room, for example, are artifacts reminding all viewers of the hierarchy of authority and responsibility that exists within the Army. The second level of the Army’s culture includes espoused beliefs and values- what the Army says is important. Beliefs and values at this conscious level will predict much of the behavior and tangible material that can be observed at the artifact level. For example the Seven Army Values that makes up one representation of the core of the Army Ethic manifests at the artifact level in values cards and posters . Further, the Army’s beliefs in the importance of marksmanship as reflected in marksmanship badges, or infantry expertise as reflected in the expert infantryman’s badge. At this second level of culture, if leaders allow disconnects between word and deed, gaps can be created between espoused values, and values in use- when Soldiers or leaders do not â€Å"walk the talk† in line with espoused Army beliefs and values. This creates confusion across the ranks and leads to dysfunctional and demoralizing behavior. For example, if the Army espouses the importance of Soldier and leader education and professional development but does not invest in it adequately, then Soldiers vote with their feet, depriving the Army of years of accumulated experience and exacerbating recruiting demands. However, if the beliefs and values are reasonably congruent with the Army’s deeper underlying assumptions, then the articulation of those values into a philosophy of operating (â€Å"how we do thing around here†) can be a powerful source to help create cohesion, unity of effort, and identity. Finally at the third, deepest level of culture are basic underlying assumptions. When a solution to a problem confronting the organization works repeatedly, it comes to be taken for granted. What was once a hypothesis, supported only by a hunch or a value, gradually comes to be treated as reality over time. Assumptions such as â€Å"Soldiers should be physically and mentally fit† become so assumed they are rarely ever discussed – only how can we make them fitter is a point of discussion. As should now be clear, one purpose of this White Paper, as the Army is in transition adapting to the new underlying assumptions associated with Operational Adaptability, is to foster a review of Army culture to ensure it is adapted appropriately and consistently at all three levels- artifacts, values and beliefs, and the basic underlying assumptions. Thus the necessity exists to understand and to include Army culture in our discussion. Section 3. 3 Army Culture and its Functional Utility The Army is not an easy entity to read. That said, we can identify three major cultural dimensions, derived from underlying assumptions about the way that an army should organize itself and its performance that clearly apply to the US Army. First, the behavior of Soldiers at all levels is guided by a strong sense of Professionalism. It is characterized by an ethos of striving for excellence, both in respect to the relevant functional specialty (e. g. infantry, transport, communications, aviation, e tc. ) and on developing combined-arms war fighting competencies.. This sense of professionalism also derives from members’ identification of goals and ideals of their service, and their adherence to the ethic of â€Å"service before self†and â€Å"duty first†. Second, the institution has a strong sense of Community, or Corporateness, a cohesion that develops as a result of belonging to the â€Å"professional family† and shared mission, purpose, and sacrifice. This is manifested in a strong sense of tribalism and clannishness, such as the â€Å"band of brothers† ethos. Third, the Army has a strong tendency towards Hierarchy, based on the logic f explicit and implicit authority distinctions in professional and social relationships. Although these three core dimensions have evolved over time for sound functional reasons, we should not necessarily expect perfect alignment or consistency between them. In fact, the dimensions exist in a pattern of creati ve tension, the outcome of which is usually effective organizational behavior. For example, because of their role of exercising legitimized violence, military organizations are invariably hierarchical, disciplined, rule-driven and conservative; given the destructive resources at their disposal, it would be irresponsible of them to be otherwise. A hierarchical ‘chain of command’ style of management communication allows leaders to exert close control over tasking and resource allocation, and the discipline that exists within units and the adherence of subordinate commanders to rules and standard operating procedures, within defined limits of discretion, makes the organization as a whole reliable and predictable. In some government occupations, this would result in the organizational form known as Machine Bureaucracy in which personal discretion of staff is neither needed nor wanted, and behavior is guided by strict adherence to elaborate rules and regulations. But in the Army and its supporting organizations there exist countervailing forces that militate against such a tendency. Military organizations indeed tend to be at some level bureaucratic, but preferably in the much more constructive form known as Professional Bureaucracy. The orientation of a professional bureaucracy is standardization of effective outcomes in an unstructured and uncertain environment. Professional bureaucracies rely for control on the specialist and discretionary expertise of highly-educated professionals, and their exercise of discretion is not only important but is demanded. Equally, hierarchy in the professional bureaucracy not only leads to organization and control of work activities but, just as importantly, provides its members with moral and contextual frames of reference. Procedures and hierarchy are as much about how and why the individual’s job fits into the overall mission as they are about doing things â€Å"by the book†. The hierarchical structure thus serves as a road-map to enhance each member’s understanding of where their contribution relates to that of others. The Army’s strong culture of Community also serves to alleviate any tendency towards behavior that is guided by rule-bound bureaucracy, and unthinking or automatic obedience. To begin with, the Army’s sense of Community acts to broaden its members’ sense of local identity by â€Å"developing the ‘I’ into the ‘we’†. This is the well-spring for cooperation and 360-degree loyalty and service derived from professional networks of â€Å"organized reciprocity and solidarity† and the basis of â€Å"swift trust†. These networks and the values on which they are based implicitly encourage members at all levels to exert themselves for the benefit of those in other sub-units and units, and to put the institution’s interests ahead of their own. This sense of Community is at the root of a commitment to provide an internal service that, in the absence of a profit motive, might bring no tangible benefit to the provider. It encourages Soldiers to trust their commanders, helps Soldiers’ families to trust the system and to feel part of the wider service community even when Soldiers are away on deployment. And, as noted by military historian John Keegan, the Army’s strong sense of Community is a disincentive for self-serving behavior, since self-serving opportunism erodes a Soldier’s standing in the network and hence his/her access to the benefits of cooperative action from others. The common values and modes of thought and language that derive from a strong sense of Army Community also helps in quickly and efficiently communicating command intentions and a host of other forms of networked behavior. Similarly, the social networks that are developed over a professional career again assist professionals in different parts of the Army to connect and communicate with fellow professionals elsewhere in the organization. Military sociologist Morris Janowitz called this feature â€Å"greasing the skids†, by which he meant making â€Å"the formal system work by means of the informal network of personal trust which binds the armed forces into a social organization†. This, he said, â€Å"infuses a basic ingredient of vitality† into an often massive organization. We have seen that sophisticated management of a strong culture is a vital ingredient in combat power. Almost as importantly, however, such management also creates intrinsic incentives for continued service of mid-career professionals, at the career/life stage when family pressures are increasing and the gap between potential earnings in the corporate sector (after the end of this recession) and in the military continue to widen. In summary, the interaction between various complex dimensions of culture creates a situation where the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. In this sense, a strong and sophisticated culture is a vital ingredient of combat power. Note that this is just as valid for the Generating Force as it is for the Operating Force. And the fulcrum is Professionalism, in the sense of both high performance standards and a strong sense of duty and service-before-self. That is to say: the stronger the Professional Ethic, the greater the leverage derived from the Army’s culture. Section 5 Conclusion Like other professions such as medicine and law, the military also requires that its actions are in service to and in accordance with the moral good they provide. For the Army, this is the defense of the rights to life and political autonomy of the people of the United States, and the viability of their government. Therefore, the Army must produce leaders that can turn their education and moral understanding into an organizational culture that supports the Army’s status and actions as a profession. The Nation grants jurisdiction and legitimacy to the Army as a profession because it trusts the Army to work with competence and character in the following jurisdictions: Major Combat Operations, Stability Operations, Strategic Deterrence, and Homeland Security. The Army’s enforcement, within its culture, of a professional Ethic that enables it to perform this duty with the moral values America endorses, protects and enhances our trust relationship with the American People. Let the dialogue begin: How will the Army best do this duty? James H. Toner, True Faith and Allegiance: The Burden Of Military Ethics (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1995): 22-23. See Les Brownlee and Peter Schoomaker, â€Å"Serving a Nation at War,† Parameters 34 (Summer 2004): 4-23. See Eliot Friedson, Professionalism The Third Logic: On the Practice of Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). It is also the case that the Army internally has several â€Å"enterprises† that manage Army-level systems, e. g. , material acquisition, etc. , on a not-for-profit basis using techniques sometimes adapted from businesses. Such enterprises do have many Army professionals serving within them, but beyond that they tend to be bureaucratic in their structure and operations, operating on annual budget cycles and following highly centralized and standardized management processes and procedures. See, Allan R. Millett and Peter Maslowski, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States of America, Revised and Expanded ( NY: Free Press, 1994): 5. Huntington, Soldier and State, 16. For an excellent discussion of the negative impact of that issue on the Army Officer Corps, see Mark Lewis, â€Å"Army Transformation and the Junior Officer Exodus,† Armed Forces and Society, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Fall 2004): 63-74. TRADOC/ARCIC Study of Army Culture, 2008. See T. O Jacobs and Michael G. Sanders, â€Å"Principles for Building the Profession: The SOF Experience,† Chapter 20 in Snider and Matthews (eds. ), The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition (NY: McGraw-Hill, 2005): 441-462. For major recent works on professions see, Andrew Abbott, The Theory of Professions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998) and, Eliot Freidson, Professionalism Reborn: Theory, Prophecy and Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994). David Segal and Karen DeAngelis, â€Å"Changing Conceptions of the Military Professions†, chapter 10 in Suzanne C. Nielsen and Don M. Snider (eds. , American Civil-Military Relations: The Soldier and the State in a New Era (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009): 194-212. For an explanation of the three main trust relationships of the Army as a profession of arms, see: Don M. Snider, Dissent and the Strategic Leadership of Military Professions (Carlisle, PA: U. S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 2008). See James Burk, Expertise, Jurisdiction and Legitimacy, chapter 2 in Don M. Snider and Lloyd J. Matthews (eds. ), The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 39-60. See, Richard Lacquement, â€Å"Mapping Army Expert Knowledge and Clarifying Jurisdictions of Practice,† chapter 9 in The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 213-236. Joint Publication 3. 0 Operations (pub data) See Don M. Snider, â€Å"The Army as Profession,† chapter 1 in The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 1-38. This conclusion was reached in a research project on the Army as profession in 2002; it is doubtful that it is invalid after nine years of war in which the Army had to rely more on its human than its technological capabilities. See Don M. Snider and Gail Watkins, â€Å"Project Conclusions,† chapter 25 in: The Future of the Army Profession, 1st Edition): 537-547. This widely acknowledged conclusion is more often given lip service that action; the Army’s human development systems remain in the industrial age, almost totally inadequate to the present and future needs of the profession. See the monograph series: Toward a US Army Officer Corps Strategy for Success by Casey Wardynski, David S. Lyle and Michael J Colarusso (Carlisle, PA: U. S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 2009-2010). See Don M. Snider, et. al, â€Å"The Multiple Identities of the Professional Army Officer,† chapter 6 in The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 143. This quotation is taken from a May 13, 2010 memorandum from General Charles Campbell to the Director of the Army Staff, LTC David Huntoon, subject, â€Å"Army Action on the Re-Investigation into the Combat Action at Wanat Village, Wygal District, Nuristan Province, Afghanistan on 13 July 2008, available at ( pub data). Cite poll data From the outset, the American military differed from other traditional professions in always being practiced in a bureaucratic setting, in being composed of people who in many cases did not have a lifelong commitment to their occupation, in having its autonomy constrained by respo nsibility to extra-professional (state) authority, and to explicitly being politically neutral. † Segal and DeAngelis, op. cit. See Leonard Wong and Don M. Snider, â€Å"Strategic Leadership of the Army Profession,† Chapter 28 in The Future of the Army Profession, 2d Edition: 601-624. A. L. Kroeber and C. Kluckhorn, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions (NY, 1952); Edgar Schein, Sense and nonsense about culture and climate, in Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate, ed. Neal M. Ashkanasy, Celeste P. M. Wilderom and Mark F. Peterson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2000), xxiii-xxx.. Joseph L. Soeters, in Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate, ed. Neal M. Ashkanasy, Celeste P. M. Wilderom and Mark F. Peterson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2000), 465-483; and Benjamin Schneider, David Bowen, Mark Ehrhart and Karen Holcombe, The climate for service: evolution of a construct, in Ashkanasy, Wilderom Peterson, op cit, 21-36. It is not surprising that the construct of ‘culture’ is still so fuzzy, given its stage of development. The concept of ‘personality’ is still somewhat fragmented, with a number of major competing paradigms – and this is a field of study that is more than a century old. In contrast, ‘organisational culture’ has been seriously studied in an academic sense, for less than three decades. Snider, Don M. 1999. â€Å"An Uninformed Debate on Military Culture. † Orbis 43(1): 11-16. HQ, TRADOC. 2009. Seeking Balance: US Army Culture and Professionalism in the 21st Century. Carl Builder, The Masks of War: American Military Styles in Strategy and Analysis (Rand Publications, 1989) 86-91. Snider, Don M. 1999. An Uninformed Debate on Military Culture.? Orbis 43(1): 11-16. Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 6. Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1960). Michael Ignatieff, The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience (London: Chatto Windus, 1998). Reference Capstone Doctrine. Nick Jans, with David Schmidtchen, The real C-cubed: Culture, careers and climate and how they affect military capability, Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No 143: Strategic Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University: 2002. Henry Mintzberg, The Structuring of Organizations (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979); Henry Mintzberg, Managing government, governing management, Harvard Business Review, 74, 3 (1996) 75-83. The landmark study in this field, of regional economic performance in Italy, found over a 20-year period that social capital in ach region was a crucial factor in explaining differences in wealth creation, business innovation, entrepreneurship, and government performance. See Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). John Keegan , A History of Warfare (London, 1993), xv. Morris Janowitz, The Professional Soldier, op cit, xvi-xvii. Reference TRADOC Study HQ, TRADOC. 2009. Seeking Balance: US Army Culture and Professionalism in the 21st Century. This list is, of course, not comprehensive. There are multiple sources of basic assumptions that inform culture and it is not possible to consider them all here. Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 6. For the purposes of this paper, I will use the word â€Å"soldier† to refer generically to any member of the military. I will capitalize â€Å"Soldiers,† â€Å"Marines,† â€Å"Sailors,† and â€Å"Airmen† when referring specifically to members of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force. George Will cite †¦ COL Tony Pfaff, â€Å"Resolving the Ethical Challenges of Irregular Warfare† (Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, 2010). need footnote on terminology †¦ Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007). Underwood, B. , Case, C. , and Hannah, S. Owning Our Army Ethic†, Military Review, 2010. A definition of human rights is contentious. To avoid controversy, the human rights in this paper are â€Å"thinly† conceived. This means the rights that matt er most in military operations are a small set of basic human rights consisting of the rights against torture, rape, unjustified killing, arbitrary imprisonment, access to basic subsistence, and personal liberty. This conception of human rights is both consistent with the founding of the United States and defensible as objective moral goods which serve as a founding source of the Army Ethic. In order to establish a moral basis for the Army Ethic we need to examine the good the Army provides. Field Manual 1 states the Army is the defender of â€Å"our way life. † However, achieving objectives or defending a â€Å"way of life,† are goals that many organizations could adopt as their purpose. Drug cartels, the mafia, or Al Qaeda, could easily make the same factual claim. They too are defending their ways of life. Another view of the Army’s purpose is that it provides for a â€Å"common defense. † Again, other organizations that practice collective violence can make the factual claim

Blue jet Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Blue jet - Case Study Example ent compartments such as first class and economy may seem like a good idea in saving costs but majority of the people do not appreciate the standard treatment hence preferring other airlines for that matter. Fatigue and burnout for the few employees is likely to occur what with the employees working being few and the turnaround time being shorter and having increased flight slots hence reducing resting time for the flight crew. JetBlue in a bid to cut costs has made their planes be less comfortable. This is because of more seats than gallery space hence leaving less room for stretching and movement. This may discourage long distance passengers despite the reduced airline costs. The harnessed of technology approach taken by the airline is the greatest of its opportunities as it has not only ensured reduced costs through developments such as electronic ticketing, VoIP, paperless cockpits among others but has continued to reduce time and save on other unnecessary costs hence ensuring more profits. The airline has started using secondary airports. While this may not be the same as using the other airports, it ensures that it has more flight slots as the traffic in these secondary airports is kept to minimal hence no congestion or competition. The decision to use of single fleet operation may seem as a weakness but the culminate advantages it has outdo the weakness aspect. The purchasing costs of the airplanes is lower, they require less maintenance and have a warranty of five years which is fairly good. This has ensured saving on other costs and the excess used to purchase more airplanes. Customer focus is another of the great opportunities JetBlue has. It has created a niche in customer focus with its services and low fare costs as well as reducing delay and baggage complains which has not only served to maintain its customers but increase new customers as well. Point to point flights has acted to increase the reviews and ultimately the number of customers

The Industrial Revolution in England Personal Statement

The Industrial Revolution in England - Personal Statement Example But this is the story of the working class. Enclosure meant that the poor, rather than the rich, constituted landless labourers. The working class had therefore lost their independence, their soul and dignity to work. But my quality of life despite this may have improved in general. The Industrial Revolution changed Manchester from a rural, and agricultural society, to an urban and industrial society. The Industrial Revolution has bought significant benefits. The spinning jenny has reduced the amount of work needed to produce yarn, the Industrial Revolution has also bought to us the steam engine, and the power driven machinery in the textile industry, in our mills, for steam-powered looms for weaving. Importantly, families are now able to generate a greater income, as the wife is now able to stay at home and work the fields whilst the husband can work freely in the factory. But a Manchester once made up of peasant farmers, enjoying rural England, became unfortunately a Manchester soaked in sap and tar that so vehemently attacked our lungs. Despite technological advances, Manchester factories turned into breeding grounds for slave-driven worker standards. Revenue took over from efficiency; employer standards took priority over employee standards. But improvements in travel conditions, such as stronger bridges and roads, and the other inventions that we can now exploit, such as the st

Economics of FOREX. See question below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Economics of FOREX. See question below - Essay Example It is the European Parliament that is expected to react on certain economic events that arises over time despite the fact that they do not have the authority to implement policies to counter act the effects. Also, the authorities empowered to act on the ECB for monetary policy and the European Commission for the fiscal policy does not have the right to implement some needed policy to make the overall economy better.3 It means that power and responsibility over the economic activities does not come from a political process. The European policy makers who are eager to come up with solutions to economic shocks do not have the power to react and those who have the authority to do so do not have a democratic right to intervene in any economic situation. Each member of the Eurozone has a mutual assurance regarding the stability of the currency. The purpose of having a ‘single currency’ is to enhance a free trade between the members of the Eurozone by promoting the coordination of credit and exchange rate policies.4 In the case of Eurozone, only the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) has the sole authority to create and implement a monetary policy for all the members of Eurozone.5 ESCB is composed of the European Central Bank (ECB), and the Eurozone Central Banks that operates in Euro countries. Since a single currency imposed on the Eurozone countries, they can use only one monetary policy for all. Hence, only one interest rate among all Eurozone countries is allowed. In case of an economic problem, the national government is therefore deprived of using the monetary policy (monetarism) to solve any economic issues. This leaves them the option to control over the fiscal policy instead. Aside from the political issue attached with having a single currency, this strategy can be beneficial for the participating countries in terms of inter-trading opportunities, currency stability and having a transparency in the costs of goods and

The Biogas Production Worldwide Environmental Sciences Essay

The Biogas Production Worldwide Environmental Sciences Essay Energy is a necessary concomitant of human existence. Basically, there exist various sources of energy like coal and other petroleum products that are commercially exploited for many useful reasons. These fossil fuels have become a strong pillar of the economy and it has penetrated so deep in the mechanism of human living that it has become almost impossible to think of a world running without fossil fuel. Yet it is a fact that this source of energy will not last forever. Once, fossil fuels were available abundantly and at low prices. However, nowadays its price is high rocketing on the international market and it is also becoming very scarce. The immediate effect of this is that the world is facing the phenomena of inflation and rising prices. Moreover, today there is an energy crisis that has arisen due to the fear that the boons of fossil fuel may turn into a bane with its disappearance. In addition, the burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other toxic gases in the atmosphere and a direct consequence of this is global warming. 1.1 Background Energy and energy resources can be known to be the backbone for survival on earth. People are heavily dependent on various energy sources like coal or fossil fuels so as to meet up with their daily needs whether it is in the power sector, the transportation sector or for cooking and heating purposes and about 88% of this demand is met by fossil fuels (Peter Weiland, 2009). It is predicted that the use of fossil fossils will come close to surpassing oil consumption by 2017 (IEA, 2012). On the other hand, greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions in the environment are also increasing rapidly, with carbon dioxide being the highest contributor. Another global energy challenge is the depletion of fossil fuels. Due to the increasing demand, the availability of the fuel is decreasing. In addition, conventional oil and gas reserves are mostly found in politically unstable countries, making its ease of use less accessible. In this context, biogas can be derived from wastes, animal manure or energy crops so as to meet with the increasing energy demand in the future. Biogas can be defined as a versatile renewable energy source which can replace fossil fuels in the power and heat production sector and in the transportation sector. It has the capacity to replace natural gas also for producing chemicals and liquefied petroleum gas for cooking purposes. Table .1: comparison of heat values and efficiency of commonly used fuels with biogas (Nabard, 2007) Commonly used fuels Calorific values in kilo calories Thermal efficiency Biogas 4713/M3 60% Firewood 2093/kg 11% Diesel 10550/kg 66% Kerosene 10850/kg 50% Petrol 11100/kg Biogas production through anaerobic digestion (AD) process has many advantages over other bioenergy forms. It is one of the most energy- efficient and environmentally friendly bioenergy technologies. It not only reduces the emission of greenhouse gases drastically compared to fossil fuels, but it also produces high grade fertilizer as by- product. 1.1.1 Biogas production worldwide In the field of biogas, Germany has built itself a world top leading position. In 2006, it built 826 biogas systems to a total increased production unit of 3700, hence making Germany the number one biogas- based energy producer (Energy solutions, 2012). Figure .1: various substrates available in Germany having the potential energy accumulated for biogas production (Baltic Biogas Bus Project, 2012) The worldà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s biogas market is predicted to reach $8.98 billion by the year 2017, with the desire to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and to focus on eco- friendliness biogas programs (GIA, 2012). Latin America is also well known for its biogas technology in municipal raw sewage treatment and landfill gas technology. It has identified 25 types of wastes for biogas production. The country has 33 RD projects and since 1977, five projects have already been implemented to produce biogas from sanitary landfills. Latin America produces around 217 million m3 per year which is mostly used for cooking, lighting, vehicle fuel and town gas. (H.Naveau, 1993) Moreover, the biogas market has grown rapidly in the recent years for the cogeneration of heat and power and for the production of bio- methane to be used as vehicle fuel. In the European Union (EU), 17% of all the energy will have to be produced from renewable sources, and in the transport sector it has to reach 10% of the total according to the European Directive 2009/28/EC, thus making biogas the viable solution to reach this target. The reasons for having a spread out on the biogas energy market includes an increase in demand for distributed generation, severe environmental rules arising due to lots of pollution and an accelerating increase in infrastructure and vehicle build out adapting with natural gas. According to Pike Research, this fast- growing market reached $17.3 billion in global revenue in 2011, and this will almost double by 2022 to an amount of $33.1 billion (Globe- Net, 2012). biogas_640x383.jpg Figure 1.: Biogas market value by regions (Pike Research, 2012) 1.1.2 Energy sector in Mauritius Mauritius is an island having no oil, coal reserves or natural gas. It is heavily dependent on imported energy resources. The Ministry of Renewable Energy and Public Utilities (MPU) is responsible for the energy policy including energy, water and wastewater in the island. The Central Board of Electricity (CEB) occupies the generation, transmission, distribution and sale of electricity and the State Trading Corporation (STC) import petroleum products like gasoil, fuel oil and LPG. With the increase in standard of living, industrialization, population growth and more development in the transportation sector, the energy demand is climbing at an exponential rate in Mauritius. We are becoming an energy dependant society and as per the graph below, the exportation of gas oil will be more than doubled by the year 2025. Table 1.: Imports of energy sources in Mauritius in 2011 (Energy and water statistics, 2011) Energy source 2011 (Ktoe) Gasoline 126.0 Diesel oil 313.0 Kerosene 4.5 LPG 71.6 Coal 409.3 Figure1.3: Forecast of petroleumn product imports in Mauritius (Outline Energy Policy, 2007) Moreover, with the depletion of the energy sources, the price of the fuel are augmenting, hence making it more difficult to afford. Hence, to avoid an energy crisis in the future, other forms of energy resources need to be exploited which is environmentally friendly and has an infinite reserve. Figure 1.4: Trend in price of exported fuel from 2002 to 2011 (Energy and water statistics, 2011) The figures above demonstrate how Mauritius depends greatly onto fossil fuels, and this trend is going to increase in the years to come. Hence, new alternatives need to be found so as to match with this increasing demand. However, the alternate options should be in line with the Maurice Ile Durable (MID) concept; a renewable and environmentally friendly source. In each and every home in the Mauritian society, one makes use of LPG for cooking purposes. The actual price of the gas cylinder is Rs540. If the government maintains the price at Rs330 for consumers, the STC will have to look for Rs 820 million for subsidy. This is due to the increasing price of butane and propane in the global market. Hence, to remedy this, cooking gas can be obtained locally from anaerobic digestion of organic waste to produce biogas. It fits in the MID, whereby according to Pr de Rosnay, 37% of electricity will come from biomass/biogas by 2028. 1.2 Rationale In Mauritius, we are already a fossil fuel dependant society. Hence, to reduce this problem of dependency on the already depleting resource, we can focus on the use of biogas at our home itself. Moreover, with the concept of the MID, we are adopting a renewable energy source, which in the course of time can expand to the production of electricity. Also, we already have the problem of overfilling of our landfill at Mare- Chicose. Thus, by using our household organic waste, we not only produce useful cooking gas, but we also has as by- product a high grade fertilizer and we are alleviating the problem of our landfill. In addition, by converting the gas into methane to be used for cooking purposes, large amounts of carbon dioxide are not emitted in the environment, thus protecting our planet from global warming. And also, we are discarding much of the waste from the surrounding into useful products. Lastly, with the expansion of the biogas energy system in our country, more jobs can be created in the field of energy, whereby Mauritius can later be self- sufficient in the production of cooking gas and eventually in the production of electricity, thus reducing on imports. 1.3 Aims and Objectives The aim of this project is to produce an improved biogas system that can be adopted in a household for cooking purposes along with implementing its safety processes. To achieve this, the objectives identified are: To have an understanding of the functioning of the process to produce adequate biogas for cooking. To improve the biogas system by modifying the previous set- up To optimize the system by focusing on: Design of the system Ratio of substrate to be used Conditions to consider to favor biogas production To modify a cooking stove so as it can operate on biogas. To make laboratory testing to determine the methane composition in the biogas and the heating value. To study the risks and safety processes associated with the digester and to implement it. To make an assessment of the amount of gas produced for cooking purposes 1.4 Structure of report Chapter one- Introduction This chapter introduces the project title and gives an overview of energy trend in Mauritius and worldwide and the aim and objectives of the project. Chapter Two- Literature Review The types of anaerobic digestion process to produce biogas and the factors affecting the process are discussed, along with the production of biogas in the island. Also, the safety and risks associated with the system are identified. Chapter Three- Methodology The methods undertaken to construct the reactor and analytical testing of the feed and product of the biogas system are considered. Chapter Four- Design and Construction The materials of construction and cost analysis are assessed. Chapter Five- Results and Discussions The economic analysis and findings from analytical tests are observed and discussed. Chapter Six- Safety Implementation The safety precautions that need to be applied to the biogas system are discussed. Chapter Seven- Conclusion, Recommendation, Future works A summary of the aims of the project is made and some recommendations and future work are mentioned for improvements.

The Articles of Confederation :: essays papers

The Articles of Confederation Adopted in congress in 1777 and ratified and in force in (1784?) Adopted for: a) unify in defense and war b) Foreign policy basic principle of articles for states to maintain control under central government assigned specific powers Organization of government: 1) one legislative house - unicameral legislature - passes laws 2) 2-7 delegates per state 3) 9 votes required to pass law 4) 13/ unanimous votes needed to amend Articles Powers: defense - army, navy, and treaties with Indians Foreign affairs - war Money - borrowing, spending, printing, determining value, coining Internal affairs - Judge disputes in special court hearings between states Enforcement laws determined by state therefore enforcement was selective to state desires and rarely done State restrictions - states could not: make war, treaties, international tariffs and coin money Duties of state - states must provide money/army? When requested by congress States must pay taxes based on land Weaknesses of Articles - I. trade regulation - congress had no power to regulate trade - done by states - caused: a) tariffs on imports and exports established by states b) states competed over control of waterways c) Foreign trade was diminishing; interstate trade was also stopping because of tariffs on each other making trade difficult II. Enforcement a) Central government included no enforcement/ executive branch b) Rules mostly ignored 1) taxes decided by congress based on land ( to be paid by states - didn't pay - congress had no income and had to borrow- land basis bad for south - few people and lot of land 2) no income for army - regulated number soldiers per state not given - kept for own defense result - SHAY'S REBELLION - Begun by Daniel Shay - farmer in Massachusetts wanted to begin own government and revolted - Mass. didn't have enough army to quell rebellion - soldiers also farmers and on other side - asked congress for help but appeal to no avail - states didn't list4en to congress cuz didn't care - continued for 6 months 3) Treaty of Paris not enforced - states refused to compensate loyalist for property lost and collect debts owed to British merchants - money all used for war effort Therefore England also violate and move troops to Northwest Territory (fur trade) Spain and England restrict trade on Mississippi and right of deposit in New Orleans III. Money - each state illegally made their own currency- congress could not prevent it - 14 forms of currency causing it to be worthless and inflation - made congress and states suffer - foreign countries unwilling to trade and

E-Business-Issues and Challenges

E-Business – Issues and Challenges Ashmita Paul Abstract In today’s business climate, e-business can have an impact on every facet of the organization, including supply chain management, leasing, non-cash payment, mail order commerce or the rise of service economy. As said by Lou Gerstner, ex CEO of IBM, â€Å"E-business is all about time cycle, speed, globalization, enhanced productivity, reaching new customers and sharing knowledge across institutions for competitive advantage†. E-business is transforming companies and industries, at an accelerating rate. Business cycles that used to be measured in years are now measured in days. This paper deals with the various issues of e-business as well as the challenges being faced. Issues can be technological and non-technological. Technological issues investigated include telecommunication, hardware, software and the availability of technical skill sets. Non-technological issues are often related to intellectual property concerns, copyright, trademark, credit/cash policies and privacy. As companies have embraced the internet as a business medium, they have discovered that their biggest challenge is not only establishing connectivity and infrastructure but is the safe and secure transmission and sensitive information. This paper focussed on emerging issues of e-business that are more high-up and stern in developing and emerging economies. An attempt has also been made in the paper to throw light on the challenges to e-business that are more related to strengthening success factors, establishing barriers to failure, diminishing barriers to success and fighting the failure factors. Key words: E-Business, Technological, Non-Technological, Challenges.

History of Newspapers In America

History of Newspapers In America The rise of newspapers in America accelerated enormously throughout the 19th century. When the century began, newspapers, generally in the larger cities and towns, tended to be affiliated with political factions or particular politicians. And while newspapers had influence, the reach of the press was fairly narrow. By the 1830s the newspaper business began to expand rapidly. Advances in printing technology meant newspapers could reach more people, and the introduction of the penny press meant that just about anyone, including newly arrived immigrants, could buy and read the news. By the 1850s the American newspaper industry came to be dominated by legendary editors, including Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune, James Gordon Bennett of the New York Herald, and Henry J. Raymond, of the upstart New York Times. Major cities, and many large towns, began to boast high-quality newspapers. By the time of the Civil War, the publics appetite for news was enormous. And newspaper publishers responded by sending war correspondents to the battlefronts. Extensive news would fill newspaper pages after major battles, and many worried families came to rely on newspapers for casualty lists. By the end of the 19th century, after a period of slow yet steady growth, the newspaper industry was suddenly energized by the tactics of two dueling editors, Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. The two men, engaging in what became known as Yellow Journalism, fought a circulation war that made newspapers a vital part of everyday American life. As the 20th century dawned, newspapers were read in nearly all American homes, and, without the competition from radio and television, enjoyed a period of great business success. The Partisan Era, 1790s-1830s In the early years of the United States, newspapers tended to have small circulation for several reasons. Printing was slow and tedious, so for technical reasons no one publisher could generate enormous numbers of issues. The price of newspapers tended to exclude many common people. And while Americans tended to be literate, there simply werent the large number of readers that would come later in the century. Despite all that, newspapers were felt to have profound influence on the early years of the federal government. The main reason was that newspapers were often the organs of political factions, with articles and essays essentially making the cases for political action. Some politicians were known to be connected with specific newspapers. For instance, Alexander Hamilton was a founder of the New York Post (which still exists today, after changing ownership and direction many times during more than two centuries). In 1783, eight years before Hamilton founded the Post, Noah Webster, who would later publish the first American dictionary, began publishing the first daily newspaper in New York City, the American Minerva. Websters newspaper was essentially an organ of the Federalist Party. The Minerva only operated for a few years, but it was influential and inspired other newspapers that followed. Up through the 1820s the publication of newspapers generally had some political affiliation. The newspaper was the way politicians communicated with constituents and voters. And while the newspapers carried accounts of newsworthy events, the pages were often filled with letters expressing opinions. Its worth noting that newspapers circulated widely across early America, and it was common for publishers to reprint stories which had been published in distant cities and towns. It was also common for newspapers to publish letters from travelers who had just arrived from Europe and who could relate the foreign news. The highly partisan era of newspapers continued well into the 1820s, when campaigns waged by candidates John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson played out on the pages of newspapers. Vicious attacks, such as in the controversial elections of 1824 and 1828, were carried in newspapers which were essentially controlled by candidates. The Rise of City Newspapers, 1830s-1850s In the 1830s newspapers transformed into publications devoted more to news of current events than outright partisanship. As printing technology allowed faster printing, newspapers could expand beyond the traditional four-page folio. And to fill the newer eight-page newspapers, content expanded beyond letters from travelers and political essays to more reporting (and the hiring of writers whose job was to go about the city and report on the news). A major innovation of the 1830s was simply lowering the price of a newspaper: when most daily newspapers cost a few cents, working people and especially new immigrants tended not to buy them. But an enterprising New York City printer, Benjamin Day, began publishing a newspaper, The Sun, for a penny. Suddenly anyone could afford a newspaper, and reading the paper every morning became a routine in many parts of America. And the newspaper industry got a huge boost from technology when the telegraph began to be used in the mid-1840s. Era of Great Editors, the 1850s Two major editors, Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune, and James Gordon Bennett of the New York Herald, began competing in the 1830s. Both editors were known for strong personalities and controversial opinions, and their newspapers reflected that. At the same time, William Cullen Bryant, who first came to public attention as a poet, was editing the New York Evening Post. In 1851, an editor who had worked for Greeley, Henry J. Raymond, began publishing the New York Times, which was seen as an upstart without any strong political direction.   The 1850s was a critical decade in American history. The split over slavery was about to tear the country apart. And the Whig Party, which had been the breeding ground of editors such as Greeley and Raymond, disintegrated over the slavery issue. The great national debates were, of course, followed close, and also influenced, by powerful editors such as Bennett and Greeley. A rising politician, Abraham Lincoln, recognized the value of newspapers. When he came to New York City to deliver his address at Cooper Union in early 1860, he knew the speech could put him on the road to the White House. And he made sure that his words got into the newspapers, even reportedly visiting the office of the New York Tribune after delivering his speech. The Civil War When the Civil War erupted the newspapers, especially in the North, responded quickly. Writers were hired to follow the Union troops, following a precedent set in the Crimean War by a British citizen considered the first war correspondent, William Howard Russell. The pages of newspapers soon filled up with news from Washington as the government prepared for war. And during the Battle of Bull Run, in the summer of 1861, a number of correspondents accompanied the Union Army. When the battle turned against the federal forces, the newspapermen were among those who hurried back to Washington in a chaotic retreat. As the war continued, the coverage of news became professionalized. Correspondents followed the armies and wrote very detailed accounts of battles which were widely read. For instance, following the Battle of Antietam, the pages of Northern newspapers carried lengthy accounts which often contained vivid details of the fighting. A staple of Civil War era newspapers, and perhaps the most vital public service, was the publication of casualty lists. After every major action newspapers would publish many columns listing the soldiers who had been killed or wounded. In one famous instance, the poet Walt Whitman saw his brothers name on a casualty list published in a New York newspapers following the Battle of Fredericksburg. Whitman hurried to Virginia to find his brother, who turned out to be only slightly wounded. The experience of being in the army camps led Whitman to become a volunteer nurse in Washington, D.C., and to write occasional newspaper dispatches on war news. The Calm Following the Civil War The decades following the Civil War were relatively calm for the newspaper business. The great editors of earlier eras, Greeley, Bennett, Bryant, and Raymond passed away. The new crop of editors tended to be very professional, but they did not generate the fireworks that earlier newspaper reader had come to expect. Technological changes, especially the Linotype machine, meant that newspapers could publish larger editions with more pages. The popularity of athletics in the late 1800s meant newspapers began having pages devoted to sports coverage. And the laying of undersea telegraph cables meant that news from very distant places could be seen by newspaper readers with shocking speed. For instance, when the distant volcanic island of Krakatoa exploded in 1883, news traveled by undersea cable to the Asian mainland, then to Europe, and then via transatlantic cable to New York City. Readers of New Yorks newspapers were seeing reports of the massive disaster with a day, and even more detailed reports of the devastation appeared in the following days. The Arrival of the Linotype Ottmar Mergenthaler was the German-born inventor of the linotype, an innovative printing system that revolutionized the newspaper industry in the late 19th century. Before Mergenthalers invention, printers had to set type one character at a time in a laborious and time-consuming process. The linotype, so called because it set a line of type at once, greatly sped up the printing process. Though Mergenthalers mechanical genius greatly changed 19th century newspapers, he had a number of problems in business. Within a few years of linotype machines becoming standard equipment at major American newspapers, Mergenthaler resigned from the company that made them. Though he was ultimately embittered, there is no doubt that his innovative technology changed the news business. Before the linotype, daily newspapers were restricted in how many changes they could make if they published more than one edition in a day. And simply because of the labor intensive nature of setting type, daily newspapers seldom extended beyond eight pages. Mergenthalers machine made multiple editions easier to routinely produce editions of 12 or 16 pages. With extra space available in daily editions, innovative publishers could pack their papers with large amounts of news which previously may have gone unreported. The Great Circulation Wars In the late 1880s the newspaper business received a jolt when Joseph Pulitzer, who had been publishing a successful newspaper in St. Louis, bought a paper in New York City. Pulitzer suddenly transformed the news business by focusing on news that he thought would appeal to common people. Crime stories and other sensational subjects were the focus of his New York World. And vivid headlines, written by a staff of specialized editors, pulled in readers. Pulitzers newspaper was a great success in New York. And in the mid-1890s he suddenly got a competitor when William Randolph Hearst, who had spent money from his familys mining fortune on a San Francisco newspaper a few years earlier, moved to New York City and bought the New York Journal. A spectacular circulation war broke out between Pulitzer and Hearst. There had been competitive publishers before, of course, but nothing like this. The sensationalism of the competition became known as Yellow Journalism. The high point of Yellow Journalism became the headlines and exaggerated stories which encouraged the American public to support the Spanish-American War. At Centurys End As the 19th century ended, the newspaper business had grown enormously since the days when one-man newspapers printed hundreds, or at most thousands, of issues. Americans became a nation addicted to newspapers, and in the era before broadcast journalism, newspapers were a considerable force in public life.